Specific Learning Disability

Legal Definition:

As defined by IDEA “The term 'specific learning disability' means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.

Such term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.

Such term does not include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage."

Own Definition:

A student who has a basic psychological process disorder, which involves the understanding of language- spoken or written. This may affect abilities to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or do mathematical calculations.

Prevalence:

School-Aged population accounts for 5% of all students identified with a SLD, individuals between the ages 6-21 account for 52.4 % of all students with a SLD, and boys outnumber girls 4:1. About 1 out of every 5 people in the United States have a learning diasability

Etiology:

The causes of a SLD have not been identified but chromosomal abnormalities have been considered, with genetic and hereditary influences.

Scientists have learned that causes may be the result of abnormal brain structure and functions.
Most learning disabilities are not caused from a single specific part of the brain, but from the connection of bringing together information from various brain regions. This is one reason why there are many different causes, as well as many different types of disabilities.

Characteristics and Identification

Major Characteristics:

May include complications in the following areas:
· Oral expression (spoken language to communicate ideas as opposed to speech disorders)
· Listening comprehension
· Written expression
· Basic reading skills
· Reading comprehension
· Mathematic calculations
· Mathematic reasonings

Children with learning disabilities may:
· have trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, or connecting letters to sounds
· make mistakes when reading aloud, and repeat or pause often
· not understand what they read
· have trouble spelling
· have very messy handwriting or hold a pencil awkwardly
· struggle to express ideas in writing or have limited vocabulary
· have trouble remembering the sounds that letters make
· have trouble understanding jokes, comic strips, and sarcasm
· may mispronounce words or use a wrong word that sounds similar
· have trouble with directions, organization, or social conversation rules
· confuse math symbols and misread numbers
· not be able to retell a story in order

How the Disability is Identified:

The disorder is identified through a multi-step process, beginning with teacher or parent concern based on the above characteristics. Teachers and others work to develop strategies for help in the classroom and with positive results there is no need to take further action. If problems continue, a teacher, a parent, or the student could refer the case for special education evaluation, following the guidelines of IDEA. There would then be a formal evaluation of the student including assessments of intellectual potential, academic achievement, emotional functioning, hearing and vision, social functioning, and performance in the classroom.

When the assessments are completed, a “group of qualified professionals and the parent of the child” examines the results (IDEA, Section 300.534 of 34 CFR Parts 300 and 303). Both the specific strengths and the specific weaknesses of the student are identified. If the results reveal learning difficulties that meet the local criteria, the team will identify the student as having a learning disability.

Tips, Strategies, or Instructional Techniques:

1) Direct Instruction- Teacher based instruction tends to work the best, since students are focused on what they are learning and able to concentrate on one person at a time, instead of having complete freedom.

2) Learning strategy instruction:
· learning into small steps
· administered probes
· supplied regular quality feedback
· diagrams, graphics and pictures
· provide independent, well-designed, intensive practice
· modeled instructional practices
· prompts of strategies to use
· engaged students in process type questions like “How is that strategy working?"

3) Develop Phonemic Awareness (Reading Instruction Strategy)

Phonemic awareness refers to an understanding that words and syllables are comprised of a sequence of elementary speech sounds. This understanding is essential to learning to read an alphabetic language. The teahcing focus of all activities should be on the sounds of words, not on letters or spellings. Phonemes need to be in children's attention and perception.

4) Multisensory approach

Children will learn best when content is presented in several modalities. Multisensory approaches that employ tracing, hearing, writing, and seeing are often referred to as VAKT (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile) methods. Multisensory techniques can be used with both phonics and linguistic approaches.

5) Reading comprehension support

Children with learning disabilities who need work on reading comprehension often respond to strategies which aid comprehension such as skimming, scanning and studying techniques. These techniques aid in acquiring the main idea, where details can be learned later on. The cloze procedure builds upon a student's impulse to fill in missing elements and is based upon the Gestalt principle of closure. Approximately every fifth to eighth word in a passage is randomly eliminated. The student is then required to fill in the missing words. This technique develops reading skills and an understanding of word meaning and language structure.

Resources List Used

http://add.about.com/od/adhdthebasics/a/ADHDbasics.htm

http://www.nichcy.org/products/pages/default.aspx?productid=6654

http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Attention_Disorder/

http://www.healthcentral.com/adhd/h/idea-definition-of-adhd.html

http://www.sog.unc.edu/pubs/electronicversions/slb/slbsum02/article2.pdf

http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=20174

http://learningdisabilities.about.com/od/mo/g/mental_retardat.htm

http://www.ci.maryville.tn.us/mhs/MCSSped/speechlang.htm

http://www.communicationconnects.com/articles/classroomTechniques.pdf

http://developmentally-challengeded.suite101.com/article.cfm/communication_disorders_in_the_classroom

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_and_language_impairment#cite_noteSmith.2C_D.D._2010-7

http://learningdisabilities.about.com/od/su/g/speechlanguage.htm

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/StaticResources/about/Plans/strategic/strategic06-08.pdf

http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/vsl.asp

Salend, Spencer. (2007). Creating inclusive classrooms. Prentice Hall.

http://www.speechdelay.com/frequentlyaskedquestions#2

http://specialed.about.com/cs/exceptionalities/a/speech.htm

http://www.uptodateonline.com/patients/content/topic.do?topicKey=~4rAAsiPJ.HkRIr&selectedTitle=5~15&source=search_result

http://uwadmnweb.uwyo.edu/wyo4h/Inclusive/speech.pdf

http://www.ldanatl.org/

http://www.teachingld.org/

http://www.ci.maryville.tn.us/mhs/MCSSped/ld.htm

http://www.slc.sevier.org/ldoutl.htm

http://www.greatschools.org/LD/school-learning/evaluation-and-eligibility-for-specific-learning-disabilities.gs?content=943

http://cecp.air.org/resources/20th/eligchar.asp

Speech or Language Impairment

Legal Definition:

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines a speech or language impairment as a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, oral motor disorders, a language impairment, or a voice impairment, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Own Definition:

I believe that a speech or language impairment is a disorder that affects a child’s ability to convey ideas or thought to adults and/or peers. As a result the students have a difficult time performing at or above the same grade level as their peers.

Prevalence:

In 2006 approximately 1.4 million students were serviced in special education programs under the speech or language impairment category. Eight to nice percent of children in the United States have some form of speech impairment. These impairments can affect the student’s ability to be understood. Language impairments affect between six and eight million people in the United States today. Recent studies have shown a higher prevalence of speech and language impairments in boys than in girls.

Etiology:

More often then not the causes of speech and language disorders is unknown. Some children are delayed in speech and language for what appears to be no reason. There are however several known causes of this disorder which include hearing loss, chronic ear infections, auditory processing disorder, delayed development due to premature birth, cleft palate, autism, mental retardation, brain injury and drug abuse.

Characteristics and Identification

Major Characteristics:

Characteristics of a speech disorder may include:
Problems with the pitch, volume, or voice quality
Stuttering (dysfluency)
Difficulty forming sounds (articulation)

Characteristics of a language disorder may include:
A misuse of words and what they mean
Unable to express ideas
Small vocabulary
Difficulty following directions
Grammatical patterns are inapt

How the Disability is Identified:

The first step in the identification process is to have a medical evaluation done in order to determine whether or not the student has any hearing loss that can contribute to the speech or language impairment. After a child’s pediatrician has evaluated them a referral may be made to a speech/language pathologist. This referral may also be made at the schools request so long as the parent has given their consent. The clinician will use formal testing to evaluate the student’s abilities. These evaluations include how a child communicates verbally and non-verbally as well as how words are expressed and understood. After the clinician has analyzed the evaluation they will make their recommendations. It is then up to the IEP team to create an effective plan for that student with appropriate intervention strategies and therapies.


Tips, Strategies, or Instructional Techniques:

1. Teachers should avoid correcting speech difficulties and should be patient as the child speaks. There are two reasons for this. First, rushing a child with a speech or language impairment is only going to increase their frustration level. Second, correcting these students can damage their self-esteem. Instead we should be sure that as teachers we continue to model proper speech patterns.

2. Using gestures and visual cues can be especially helpful for students with speech or language impairments. Visuals and gestures are much less complex then auditory cues. Since receptive language can be difficult for these students they may have difficulty with directions or material that is presented orally. Gestures (smiles, nods, pointing) can help support a students understanding and reinforce the material being presented to them. Visual cues such as pictures or charts can also help reinforce the material that is being presented. Visual cues should be placed on the child’s desk as well as around the classroom so that a child knows what is expected of them. Labeling materials in the classroom with both words and pictures is also important. A print rich environment is key for students with speech and language impairments.

3. Students with speech and language impairments will most likely work with the school’s speech therapist. Collaboration between the speech therapist and the teacher can be extremely helpful. The speech therapist may be able to provide the teacher with a better incite on the child’s particular speech and language disorder as well as some strategies that can be helpful when working with the child.

4. Give students a copy of notes that are being taken in class. Students with speech or language difficulties have a hard time copying things off the board because they must translate words to paper, which is done through language. You may also want to pair the student with a partner who can take notes for them to be photocopied at a later time. Be sure that when giving notes you make direct eye contact with the student throughout and question the student after the material/ notes have been presented to be sure that they understood. Going over the notes with the child individually can also be very helpful.

5. Students with speech and language disorders may be reluctant to join in verbal activities and it may affect their social-emotional development. In order to be sure that this does not happen it is important that teachers create a classroom environment that promotes language learning. To create this type of environment students need to be provided with several opportunities to hear and to speak. Encourage students to speak by telling the student you won’t call on him/her until they volunteer, but that you expect at least one per day. Teachers should also offers students academic activities that ask them to work, interact and communicate with other students in the classroom. Another great way to facilitate social interaction it to seat students in groups of desks or tables rather then rows.

Mental Retardation

Legal Definition:

Mental Retardation is listed under IDEA as one of the thirteen disability categories of eligibility for special education services under 34 CFR 300.8(c)(6). Even though termed offensive, the term mental retardation is still used as acceptable language, but mental disability or developmental disability are deemed more socially acceptable.
Mental retardation is described as "significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period that adversely affects a child's educational performance."Own Definition:
Mental retardation is a general term used to describe a person who has limitations in mental functioning and/or skills such as communication, taking care of him or herself, and social skills. A child will learn and develop slower than normal- i.e.: learning to speak, walk, or taking care of their personal needs.

Prevalence:

On average 3 of every 100 people have mental retardation.
1 of every 10 children in special education have some form of mental retardation.
About 87% of people with mental retardation will only be a little slower than average in learning skills.
The remaining 13% of people with mental retardation score below 50 on IQ tests.

Etiology:

The most common causes of mental retardation are:

Genetic conditions -- Abnormalities of chromosomes and genes. Examples of genetic conditions are Down syndrome (trisomy 21), fragile X syndrome, and phenylketonuria (PKU).

Problems during pregnancy -- Baby does not develop, woman drinks alcohol, or gets an infection like rubella.

Perinatal problems -- Problems during labor and birth, such as not getting enough oxygen.

Health problems -- Diseases like whooping cough, the measles, or meningitis. Or by extreme malnutrition or being exposed to poisons like lead or mercury.

Characteristics and Identification

Major Characteristics:

-Sit up, crawl, or walk later than other children
-Learn to talk later, or have trouble speaking
-Find it hard to remember things
-Not understand how to pay for things
-Have trouble understanding social rules
-Have trouble seeing the consequences of their actions
-Have trouble solving problems
-Have trouble thinking logically

How the Disability is Identified:

The diagnosis of mental retardation may be based on two main things:

(1) The ability of a person's brain to learn, think, solve problems, and makes sense of the world (intellectual functioning or IQ)
(2) Whether the person has the skills he or she needs to live independently (called adaptive behavior or adaptive functioning).
Intellectual functioning, or IQ, is usually measured by an IQ test. The average IQ score is, by definition, 100. People scoring below 70 to 75 on the IQ test are considered to have mental retardation.
To measure adaptive behavior, professionals compare limitations to other children of same age to increase things such as daily living skills, communication skills, or social skills.

The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (formerly American Association of Mental Retardation) established criteria for the diagnosis:

-Severe delays in development of cognitive, communication, social, adaptive, physical, fine and gross motor -Development, and behavioral skills typically beginning in infancy and early childhood
-Significantly below average score on academic, communication, and intelligence assessments, typically two standard deviations below the mean or average on standardized, norm-referenced assessment
-Test scores at or below the 2nd percentile compared to same age peers
-Significant limitations in two or more adaptive skill areas.

Tips, Strategies, or Instructional Techniques:

1) Work for Independence: Children with mental retardation need to learn daily care skills, such as dressing, feeding, using the bathroom, and grooming. They need to be taught in repetition. Basic things in the classroom such as washing hands, getting a drink, etc must be taught effectively.

2) Give Responsibility: Keeping the age, attention span, and abilities in mind, give smaller steps at first and gradually work towards larger responsibilities. This may include counting out a set number of materials for others in the class. Next time it may mean counting out more of the same object or passing it out to others if capable. Always give clear directions and demonstrate the task at hand.

3) Increase social skills: Allow a student with a mental retardation to be an active participant in the classroom and be able to become involved in as many activities as possible within their individual limitations. By differentiating instruction they will be able to work with others and increase their social skills (communication, peer-to-peer relationships, etc)

4) Meet the Needs: Simplify and organize objectives for students with mental retardation in general education classes, and teach directly to these objectives. By adapting to the needs, you can reduce reading, writing, and or language requirements. There should be clear, organized, concrete examples of all work. Evaluation and assessments can be adapted with individual portfolios or one on one testing

5) Prepare other Students: A special education teacher may come in and talk to other students about the disability and how they are still just like everyone else, but may have different strengths and or limitations. Make sure to allow for questions and have open acceptance policies. It is important for others to become peer tutors or helpers for the student with a disability, but through a way of reinforcing independent functioning. All students in the class should work as one, as a team.

ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

Legal Definition:

The federal and state definitions of OHI are essentially the same. According to the federal regulations:

Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that—

(i) Is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, and sickle cell anemia.

(ii) Adversely affects a child’s educational performance.

Own Definition:

A student who has ADHD is a biological condition that is characterized by poor attention and distractibility and/or hyperactive and impulsive behaviors. It is the most common mental disorder in children. Symptoms may continue into adolescence and adulthood. It can lead to poor school/work performance, poor social relationships and low self esteem.

Prevalence:

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH):
-Estimates 3% to 5% of preschool and school-age children.
-Approximately two million children in the United States.
-In a class of 25 to 30 students, approximately one student will have ADHD

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provides as of 2003:
-Affects approximately 4.4 million children ages 4 to 17
-Of these, 2.5 million (56%) were reported to be taking medication for the disorder.
-ADHD begins in childhood, but it often lasts into adulthood.

Etiology:

The cause of ADHD is unknown, but it is related to a genetic and biological component. ADHD tends to occur among family members, focusing on identifying which genes, or combination of genes. Physical differences in parts of the brain are also thought to be linked to ADHD.
Characteristics and Identification

Characteristics and Identification

Major Characteristics:

ADHD is a syndrome generally characterized by the following symptoms:

-Inattention
-Distractibility
-Impulsivity
-Hyperactivity

ADHD can be categorized into three subtypes:

-Behavior marked by hyperactivity and impulsivity, but not inattentiveness
-Behavior marked by inattentiveness, but not hyperactivity and impulsivity
-A combination of the above two

Children with ADHD can have the following problems:

-Inability to hold information in short-term memory
-Impaired organization and planning skills
-Difficulty in establishing and using goals to guide behavior, such as selecting strategies and monitoring tasks
-Inability to keep emotions from becoming overpowering
-Inability to shift efficiently from one mental activity to another

How the Disability is Identified:

The American Academy of Pediatrics (2002) for identifying children with ADHD includes:
-Children between ages 6 - 12, with symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, academic underachievement, or behavior problems in at least two settings. (i.e.: harmful for the child academically or socially for at least 6 months.)
-A diagnosis requires detailed reports by parents or caregivers.
-Obtaining direct evidence from the classroom teacher or other school-based professionals about the child
-Assessed for accompanying conditions (such as learning difficulties).

Tips, Strategies, or Instructional Techniques:

1) Provide structure and a consistent schedule: There should be a daily activity routine set in place, so the child knows what needs to be done, when and where. This also may include providing consistent, low-key reminders, prompts and cues when needed.

2) Positive and consistent behavior strategies: There should be consistent rewards and consequences, so that the child knows what to expect. It is important to be positive about good performance, but not being too critical.

3) Organization: Children with AD/HD need to be taught and monitored on the use of organizational strategies; color-coded folders, labeling, checklists, to-do lists, and/or goal setting. They need a daily supervision of reviewing homework, assignments, organizing a backpack, etc...

4) Lessons: Children with ADHD respond well to tasks that are rapid, intense, or of short duration (such as spelling bees or competitive educational games), but tend to have problems with long-term projects. It would be helpful to have alternative assignments and or differentiated instruction options in the classroom.

5) Focus: Children with ADHD often require frequent reminders or visual cues for class and school rules. It would be helpful to have the child sit in the front of the classroom to increase attention and reduce outside noise.

EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE

Legal Definition:

As defined under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act:

"...a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance--

(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems." [Code of Federal Regulations, Title 34, Section 300.7(c)(4)(i)]
As defined by the IDEA, emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia but does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance. [Code of Federal Regulation, Title 34, Section 300.7(c)(4)(ii)]

Own Definition:

A student who is emotionally disturbed shows signs of a long term inability that affects life skill performances. These skills show decline in areas such as social skills with others, their relationships with others, feeling, mood, and senses. It could be described as a roller coaster of emotions, having high and low points, on a day to day basis.

Prevalence:

Individuals of emotional disturbance (or behavioral disorders) represent 8.1% of all students ages 6–21 served under IDEA, or .72% of the school population (U.S. Department of Education, 2002a). Several other research studies suggest that this number may be much higher due to the fact that boys outnumber girls in this category by about 3.5 to 1. According to the 26th Annual Report (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), 482,597 students between the ages of 6 to 21 years of age were identified as having emotional disturbances (about 42,000 in NY State) Students classified with emotional disturbances represent about 1% of the entire school-age population.

Etiology:

Usually there is no known cause, but possible ties are made between biological (there are connections with schizophrenia, autism, ADHD, Tourette syndrome, etc) family (domestic violence), school (failure to accommodate for individual needs, inappropriate expectations, or inconsistency), and/or cultural factors (peer group, urbanization, and neighborhood factors)
The causes of emotional disturbance have not been adequately determined. Other factors (not the direct cause) may include heredity, brain disorder, diet, stress, and family functioning.

Characteristics and Identification

Major Characteristics:

-Hyperactivity
-Aggression/self-injurious behavior
-Withdrawal or symptoms of depression
-Immaturity or inappropriate social skills (with peers, teachers, siblings, parents, etc)
-Learning difficulties or unaware of class or school rules
-May feel that “people are out to get them”
-Higher risk for substance abuse

Serious emotional disturbances may include distorted thinking, excessive anxiety, bizarre motor acts, abnormal mood swings, and or phobias. Severe cases may include classification of psychosis or schizophrenia. Students may function two or more years below grade level in reading, math, writing, and spelling. With severe anxieties, they may be unable to attend, listen, and learn in school. May exhibit severe deficiencies in metacognitive skills, memory skills, and attention. At risk for dropping out of school. Other students of emotional disabilities attain average, or even above-average academic achievement.

How the Disability is Identified:

Children who fall into one of the legal definition categories above, and that prove to be lacking in any of those above mentioned areas may receive services under IDEA. They must be identified and documented by a team of individuals following IDEA guidelines. Children under the age of 9 who exhibit delays in social or emotional development may receive services under the developmental delay category.

Some federal agencies use different eligibility criteria for youth with emotional disturbance and this may include mental health conditions specified within the DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed.). This would include concerns that limits a child’s role or functioning in family, school, or community activities.

Tips, Strategies, or Instructional Techniques

1) Providing responsibilities within the classroom such as distributing papers or helping to clean up the room. This will enable them to feel responsible and in charge by helping others. Other students in the class need to be aware of students with emotional behaviors, and may need to be informed as to ignoring inappropriate behaviors of others.

2) Class rules and review of specific acceptances are necessary. These may include providing specific directions, as well as illustrating the rules with clear examples and specify rewards for following rules as well as consequences when rules are disobeyed. These rules need to be consistently enforced, but in a positive manner. Providing models of behaviors may be important, such as: “Here’s one thing you can say if you think another student is sitting too close to you....” “Here is something you should not say....”

3) Maintaining a positive relationship by responding to them as normal human beings, rather than responding simply to their negative behaviors. Use positive comments frequently, such as: “Jeff, I appreciate the way you tried hard in class today. I know that math is not your favorite subject.” Before reprimanding negative social behavior, say: “Stop and think about what you just did. What should you have done? Now, try to do it more appropriately.”

4) Students with emotional disturbance can also benefit from general social skills instruction. It may be important to review more acceptable ways of asking and answering questions, including how to resolve conflicts.

5) A last strategy is to teach students to monitor their own behavior. Likewise, it is important to inform the child of strategies that they can use as well. For example: “I used the ‘stop and think’ strategy before acting, so I stayed out of trouble!” Using behavioral contracts is also a consideration which would be maintained individually between the teacher and student.

Other considerations for the classroom and students with Emotional Disabilities:

-Establish open, accepting environment.
-Emphasize positive behaviors and program for success.
-Reinforce positive behavior.
-Be tolerant.
-Teach self-control, self-monitoring, and conflict resolution.
-Teach academic survival skills.
-Carefully select partners.
-Have alternative activities available.
-Design activity checklists.
-Use carefully selected peers as assistants.